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Dental evolution of representative canids as shown in upper cheek teeth P4—M2. Generally the most advanced species in each genus is chosen to enhance a sense of dental diversity. Species in the Hesperocyoninae are: Hesperocyon gregarius; Paraenhydrocyon josephi; Cynodesmus martini; Enhydrocyon crassidens; and Osbornodon fricki.

Species in the Borophaginae are: Cynarctoides acridens; Phlaocyon marslandensis; Desmocyon thomsoni; Cynarctus crucidens; Euoplocyon brachygnathus; Aelurodon stirtoni; Paratomarctus 9 temerarius; Carpocyon webbi; Epicyon haydeni; and Borophagus diversidens. Species in the Caninae are: Leptocyon gregorii; Vulpes stenognathus; Urocyon minicephalus; Cerdocyon thous; Eucyon davisi; Canis dirus; and Cuon alpinus.

All teeth are scaled to be proportional to their sizes. Wang and R. Tedford derived.

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Such a dental pattern proved to be very versatile and can readily be adapted toward either a hyper- or hypocarnivorous type of dentition, both of which were repeatedly employed by both borophagines and canines Fig. The history of the borophagines also begins with a small fox-like form, Archaeocyon, in the late Oligocene. Contemporaneous with larger and more preda- tory hesperocyonines, these early borophagines in the late Oligocene and early Miocene tended eco slim info ou intox be more omnivorous hypocarnivorous in their dental adap- tations, such as Oxetocyon, Otarocyon and Phlaocyon.

One extreme case, Cynarctoides evolved selenodont-like molars as in modern artiodactyles, a rare occurrence of herbivory among carnivorans.

These early borophagines are generally no larger than a raccoon, which is probably a good ecological model for some borophagines at a time when procyonids had yet to diversify. After some transitional forms in the early Miocene, such as Cormocyon and Desmocyon, borophagines achieved their maximum ecological and numerical i.

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By the end of the Miocene, borophagines had evolved another lineage of omnivores, although only modestly in that direction, in the form of Carpocyon. Species of Carpocyon are mostly the size of jackals to small wolves.

At the same time, the emergence of the genus Epicyon from a Carpocyon-like ancestor marked another major clade eco slim info ou intox hypercarnivorous borophagines. The terminal species of Epicyon, E. Closely related to Epicyon is Borophagus, the termi- nal genus of the Borophaginae. Both Epicyon and Borophagus are best known for their massive P4 and p4 in contrast to the diminutive belső combzsír égetése in front.

This pair of enlarged premolars is designed for cracking bones, mirroring similar adapta- tions by hyaenids in the Old World. Advanced species of Borophagus survived most of the Pliocene but became extinct near the beginning of the Pleistocene. Caninae As in the hesperocyonines and borophagines, a small fox-sized species of Leptocyon is the earliest recognized member of the subfamily Caninae. Besides sharing a bicuspid talonid of m1 and a quadrate M1 with the borophagines, Leptocyon is also characterized by a slender rostrum and elongated lower jaw, and correspondingly narrow and slim premolars, features that are inherited in all subsequent canines.

Throughout its long existence no other canid genus had as long a durationfacing intense competition from the larger and diverse hesperocyonines and Evolutionary History of Canids 11 borophagines, Leptocyon generally remains small and inconspicuous, never having more than two or three species at a time. By the latest Miocene, fox-sized niches are widely available in North America, left open by extinctions of all small borophagines. The North American Pliocene record of Vulpes is quite poor.

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Fragmentary materials from early Blancan indicate the presence of a swift fox-like form in the Great Plains.

Vulpes species were widespread and diverse in Eurasia during the Pliocene see Qiu and Tedford,resulting from an immigration event independent from that of the Canis clade. Red fox Vulpes vulpes and Arctic fox Vulpes lagopus appeared in North America only in euro stacker 4 zsírégető áttekintés late Pleistocene, evidently as a result of immigration back to the New World.

Preferring more wooded areas, the grey fox Urocyon has remained in south- ern North America and Middle America.

Records of the grey fox clade indicate a more or less continuous presence in North America throughout its existence, with intermediate forms leading to the living species U.

Morphologically, the living African bat-eared fox Otocyon is closest to the Urocyon clade, although molecular evidence suggests that the bat-eared fox may lie at the base of the fox clade or even lower Geffen et al.

If the morphological evidence has been correctly interpreted, then the bat-eared fox must represent a Pliocene immigration event to the Old World independent of other foxes. A transitional form, Protocyon, occurs in southern Asia and Africa in the early Pleistocene.

As a jackal-sized canid, Eucyon is mostly distinguished from the Vulpini in an expanded paroccipi- tal process and enlarged mastoid process, and in the consistent presence of a frontal sinus.

The latter character initiates a series of transformations in the Tribe Canini culminating in the elaborate development of the sinuses and a domed skull in Canis lupus.

The North American records all pre-date the European ones, suggesting a westward dispersal of this form.

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Arising from about the same phylogenetic level as Eucyon is the South American clade subtribe Cerdocyonina. Morphological and molecular evidence generally agrees that living South American canids, the most diverse group of canids on a single continent, belong to a natural group of their own. The South American canids are united by morphological characters such as a long palate, a large angular process of the jaw with a widened scar for attachment of the infe- rior branch of the medial pterygoid muscle, and a relatively long base of the coro- eco slim info ou intox process Tedford et al.

By the close of the Miocene, certain fragmentary materials from southern United States and Mexico indicate that taxa assignable to Cerdocyon Torres and Ferrusquía-Villafranca, and Chrysocyon occur in North America. The presence of these advanced taxa in the North 12 X.

Tedford American late Miocene predicts that ancestral stocks of many of the South American canids may have been present in southern North America or Middle America.

They appear in the South American fossil record shortly after the for- mation of the Isthmus of Panama in the Pliocene, around 3 Ma Berta, The earliest records are Pseudalopex and its close relative Protocyon, an extinct large hypercarnivore, from the Plio-Pleistocene around 2.

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By the latest Pleistocene 50,—10, years agomost living species or their close relatives had emerged, along with the extinct North American dire wolf, Canis dirus. By the end of the Pleistocene, all large, hypercarnivorous canids of South America Protocyon, Theriodictis as well as Canis dirus had become extinct.

The Canis clade within the tribe Canini, the most advanced group in terms of large size and hypercarnivory, arises near the Miocene—Pliocene boundary between 5 and 6 Ma in North America.

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A series eco slim info ou intox jackal-sized ancestral species of Canis thrived in the early Pliocene, such as C. The enigmatic C.

The newly arrived Canis in Eurasia underwent an extensive radiation and range expansion in the late Pliocene and Pleistocene, resulting in multiple, closely related species in Europe, Africa and Asia.

Hypercarnivorous adaptations are common in the crown-group of species, especially in the Eurasian middle lati- tudes and Africa.

Nevertheless some clades were localized in different parts of Holarctica. For the canines, North Eco slim info ou intox remained a centre through the Pliocene producing the coyote as an endemic form.

A larger radiation yielding the wolves, dhole, African hunting dog and fossil relatives took place on the Eurasian and African continents. During the Pleistocene elements a fogyás gyógyítja a köszvényt the larger canid fauna invaded mid-latitude North America — the last invasion of which was the appearance of the grey wolf south of the glacial ice sheets in the latest Pleistocene aboutyears ago.